An Introduction to Valuations
DEFINITIONS
Valuation has often been defined as the art and/or
science of estimating values. We will come to see why this has been a common
perception of the profession; more formally however:
Valuation means the provision of a written opinion
as to capital price or value, or rental price or value, on any given basis in
respect of an interest in property, with or without associated information,
assumptions or qualifications. However, it does not include a forecast of
value.
Valuation is simply a model to try to
determine price. Value is the end result. It is the quantification of an
understanding of the market; the legal impact; the physical constraints; the
planning regime; the availability of finance; the demand for product and the
general economy all influence the value of property.
Thus, in the
property market, what is often called a ‘valuation’ is the best estimate of the
trading or spot price of a building/land.
Appraisal means the written provision of a
valuation, combined with professional opinion, advice and/or analysis relating
to the suitability or profitability, or otherwise, of the subject property for
defined purposes, or to the effects of specified circumstances thereon, as
judged by the valuer following relevant investigations. It may incorporate a
calculation of worth (see below).
It is worth (no pun intended) mentioning at this point
that the nomenclature employed is often dependent upon the jurisdiction of use,
for example both the terms valuation and appraisal are used invariably to mean
the same thing in Jamaica, whereas in the USA, the term appraisal is all
encompassing and would include the UK definition of valuation (above).
Worth is a specific investor’s perception of the
capital sum which he would be prepared to pay (or accept) for the stream of
benefits [real or inferred] which he expects to be produced by the investment.
Price is the actual observable exchange price in
the open market.
Value is the estimate of the price that would be
achieved if the property were to be sold in the market.
Cost is a production-related concept, distinct
from exchange, which is defined as the amount of money required to create or
produce a commodity, good or service. Once the good is completed or the service
rendered, its cost becomes an historic fact.
The difference
between price, worth, cost and value is fundamental to valuation principles – a
clear understanding of the difference between each is essential to the
supportable estimation of value.
In the context of
real estate, value should always be related to price (Value in Exchange) not
worth (Value in Use). Price/value are market driven whereas worth is subjective
and based on the particular requirements/circumstances of the individual.
Price/value in
exchange is the outcome of the interplay of the respective value in use of
market makers. In an open and free market, no transaction will be likely if the
value in use/worth to the putative vendor is greater than the value in
use/worth to the putative purchaser. Hence, where practitioners are providing
purchase/sale advice, they should provide calculations of worth/value in use in
order to advise as to whether a sale or purchase should proceed at any given
level of price.
In a perfect market
then, where all investors have the same information and the same requirements,
‘price’ and ‘worth’ should be the same figure.
However the
property market is not perfect and there is a natural divergence between the
two figures in certain markets. Indeed, depending upon the type of property,
the valuation model may have its origin in comparing previous sale prices and
thus deriving an investment value (value in exchange) by reference to observed
payments in the market. Whereas other properties, which do not transact sufficiently
often to produce reliable comparable information, need to use valuation models
which reflect the thought process of the principal players; this relates to
worth (value in use).
Market Value
The estimated amount for which an asset should exchange on the date of valuation between a willing buyer and a willing seller in an arm's length transaction after proper marketing wherein the parties had each acted knowledgeably, prudently and without compulsion.
It should be noted at this point that the
concept of Market Value presumes a
price negotiated in an open and competitive market, a circumstance that
occasionally gives rise to the use of the adjective open before the words Market
Value. The words open and competitive have no absolute meaning.
The market for one property could be an international market or a local market.
The market could consist of numerous buyers and sellers, or could be
characterised by a limited number of participants. The market in which the
property is exposed for sale is not a definitionally restrictive or constricted
market. Stated conversely, the omission of the word open does not indicate that a transaction would be private or
closed.
The definition of market value has
undergone some revision over the past several years, in an effort to arrive at
an internationally accepted definition.
However, difficulties still remain with its
interpretation. For instance, the only way one can find out what a property
will fetch in the market is by putting it up for sale and accepting the best serious
offer. The valuer does not have this
luxury. He or she has to use all available evidence to arrive at a
realistic opinion of what the property would fetch in the market. But it can
only be an opinion. And certain assumptions will have to be made – and certain
conventions observed – in arriving at this opinion.
This is where the layperson often begins to
lose sight of the ball. Even people sophisticated in other financial and
investment spheres, such as bankers and accountants, frequently fail to appreciate
the element of convention implicit in any valuation and therefore risk
misunderstanding what a valuation figure produced on a particular basis is
telling them.
Some salient questions and observations:
·
Does
market value mean the best price that is likely to be obtained in the market at
the time or is it an average price in current market conditions?
‘The
estimated amount’…refers to a price expressed in terms of money (normally
in the local currency), payable for the property in an arm’s length transaction.
Market Value is measured as the most probable price reasonably obtainable in
the market on the date of valuation in keeping with the market value
definition. It is therefore not typically an average.
·
Property
is relatively illiquid and a reasonable marketing period is needed to achieve
the best price. Do you assume that this marketing period has already taken
place before the date of valuation or that it has still to take place? The
choice of time perspective could make a big difference to the end figure in a
market where prices are moving rapidly up or down.
After ‘proper
marketing…’ means that the property would be exposed to the market in the
most appropriate manner to effect its disposal at the best price reasonably
obtainable in accordance with the Market Value definition. The length of
exposure time may vary with market conditions, but must be sufficient to allow
the property to be brought to the attention of an adequate number of potential
purchasers. The exposure period occurs
prior to the valuation date.
·
Do you
assume that the vendor is under a particular time pressure to sell – as in a
liquidation – in which case the price achieved might be a lot lower than that
which would be produced with a reasonable marketing period.
‘A
willing seller…’ is neither an over-eager nor a forced seller, prepared to
sell at any price, nor one prepared to hold out for a price not considered
reasonable in the current market. The willing seller is motivated to sell the
property at market terms for the best price attainable in the (open) market
after proper marketing, whatever that price may be. The factual circumstances
of the actual property owner are not a part of this consideration because the
‘willing seller’ is a hypothetical owner.
‘A
willing buyer…’refers to one who is motivated, but not compelled to buy.
This buyer is neither over-eager nor determined to buy at any price. This buyer
is also one who purchases in accordance with the realities of the current
market and with current market expectations, rather than an imaginary or
hypothetical market that cannot be demonstrated or anticipated to exist. The
assumed buyer would not pay a higher price than the market requires. The
present property owner is included among those who constitute ‘the market’. A Valuer must not make unrealistic
assumptions about market conditions nor assume a level of market value above
that which is reasonably obtainable.
·
Do you
take account of any more profitable alternative use to which the property in
question might realistically be put?
Market-based
valuations must determine the highest and best use (HABU), or most probable
use, of the property asset, which is a significant determinant of its value.
(HABU) is defined
as ‘The most probable use of a property which is physically possible,
appropriately justified, legally permissible, financially feasible, and which
results in the highest value
·
Do you
take account of possible buyers with a special interest in the property, who
might be prepared to pay well above the market’s going rate?
In an ‘arm’s length transaction…’ is one
between parties who do not have a particular special relationship (for example,
parent and subsidiary companies or landlord and tenant) that may make the price
level uncharacteristic of the market or inflated because if an element of
Special Value. The Market Value transaction is presumed to be between unrelated
parties, each acting independently.
·
Does
the valuation make allowance for selling costs.
Typically no, however this can be varied by
client instruction or market practice.
·
‘Wherein
the parties had each acted knowledgeably and prudently…’ presumes that both the
willing buyer and seller are reasonably informed about the nature and
characteristics of the property, its actual and potential uses, and the state
of the market as of the date of valuation. Each is further presumed to act for
self-interest with that knowledge, and prudently to seek the best price for
their respective positions in the transaction. Prudence is assessed by
referring to the state of the market at the date of valuation, not with benefit
of hindsight at some later date. It is not necessarily imprudent for a seller
to sell property in a market with falling prices at a price that is lower than
previous market levels. In such cases, as is true for other purchase and sale
situations in markets with changing prices, the prudent buyer or seller will
act in accordance with the best market information available at the time.
·
‘…and
without compulsion…’ establishes that each party is motivated to undertake the
transaction, but neither is forced or unduly coerced to complete it.
In all of these cases, the figure that the
valuation produces could be very different depending on the answer adopted. So
the definition of even a relatively simple concept like market value needs to
give a firm answer on these and similar questions and thus pin down the
conventions that the valuer will adopt.
Potential conflict
between market value and estimate of value can arise, given that many
purchasers are motivated by factors other than purely economic appraisals,
however it is important to point out that Valuers do not make the market, they
are observers and interpreters.
A potential
purchaser, who proposes to tie up capital in land and building, may view the
transaction from three positions, namely:
1. if for owner
occupation, he will be concerned with any anticipated social or commercial
benefit;
2. he may be concerned
with the annual return in the form of income derived from property viewed as an
investment; and
3. he may be into
speculative purchasing, i.e. buying at one price with the hope of selling at a
higher price in the future, thus having a capital gain.
The motives are not
usually mutually exclusive and a transaction may be entered into with more than
one motive in mind.
However, the price
the purchaser will be prepared to pay at any given time, will be influenced by
supply and demand for that particular type of property. Demand, here, must be
effective, i.e. the desire to possess should be translatable into the action of
purchasing.
MARKET AND NON-MARKET BASES OF VALUE
The concept of
Market Value is tied to the collective perceptions and behaviour of market
participants. It recognises diverse factors that may influence transactions in
a market, and distinguishes these from other intrinsic or non-market
considerations affecting value.
Market-based
valuations must identify and include the definition of Market Value used in the
valuation. They are developed from data specific to the appropriate market(s) and
through methods and procedures that try to reflect the deductive processes of
participants in those markets. Market-based valuations are performed by
application of the sales comparison, income capitalisation, and cost approaches
to value. The data and criteria employed in each of these approaches must be
derived from the market.
Non-market based
valuations use methods that consider the economic utility or functions of an
asset, other than its ability to be bought and sold by market participants, or
the effect of unusual or atypical market conditions.
Non-market based
valuations must include the definition of value applied in the valuation, e.g.,
value in use, going concern value, investment value or worth, insurable value,
assessed or rateable value, salvage value, liquidation value, or special value.
The valuation
report should ensure that such defined value will not be construed as Market
Value.
Non-Market Valuations
Value in Use. The value a specific property has for a specific use
to a specific user and therefore non-market related. This value type focuses on
the value that specific property contributes to the entity of which it is a
part, without regard to the property's highest and best use or the monetary
amount that might be realised upon its sale. The accounting definition of Value
in Use is the present value of estimated future cash flows expected to arise
from the continuing use of an asset and from its disposal at the end of its
useful life. (See International Financial Reporting Standard 5, Appendix A
[IFRS 5, Appendix A].)
Investment Value, or Worth. The value of property to a particular
investor, or a class of investors, for identified investment objectives. This
subjective concept relates specific property to a specific investor, group of
investors, or entity with identifiable investment objectives and/or criteria.
The investment value, or worth, of a property asset may be higher or lower than
the Market Value of the property asset. The term investment value, or worth,
should not be confused with the Market Value of an investment property.
However, Market Value may reflect a number of individual assessments of the
investment value, or worth, of the particular property asset. Investment value,
or worth is associated with Special Value. (See para. 3.8 below.)
Going Concern Value. The value of a business as a whole. The concept
involves valuation of a continuing entity from which allocations, or
apportionments, of overall going concern value may be made to constituent parts
as they contribute to the whole, but none of the components in themselves
constitutes a basis for Market Value. Therefore, the concept of Going Concern
Value can apply only to a property that is a constituent part of a business or
entity.
Insurable Value. The value of property provided by definitions
contained in an insurance contract or policy.
Assessed, Rateable, or Taxable Value is a value that is based on definitions
contained within applicable laws relating to the assessment, rating, and/or
taxation of property. Although some jurisdictions may cite Market Value as the
assessment basis, methods used to estimate the value may produce results that
differ from Market Value as defined in IVS 1. Therefore, assessed, rateable, or
taxable value cannot be considered to comply with Market Value as defined in
IVS 1 unless explicitly indicated to the contrary.
Salvage Value. The value of a property, excluding land, as if
disposed of for the materials it contains, rather than for continued use
without special repairs or adaptation. It may be given as gross or net of
disposal costs and, in the latter case, may equate to net realisable value. In
any event, components included or excluded should be identified.
Liquidation or Forced Sale Value. The amount that may reasonably be
received from the sale of a property within a time frame too short to meet the
marketing time frame required by the Market Value definition. In some States,
forced sale value in particular may also involve an unwilling seller and a
buyer or buyers who buy with knowledge of the disadvantage of the seller.
Special Value. A term relating to an extraordinary element of value
over and above Market Value. Special value could arise, for example, by the
physical, functional, or economic association of a property with some other
property such as the adjoining property. It is an increment of value that could
be applicable to a particular owner or user or prospective owner or user, of
the property rather than to the market at large; that is, special value is
applicable only to a purchaser with a special interest. Marriage value, the
value increment resulting from the merger of two or more interests in a
property, represents a specific example of special value. Special value could
be associated with elements of going concern value and with investment value,
or worth. The Valuer must ensure that the criteria used to value such
properties are distinguished from those used to estimate Market Value, making
clear any special assumptions made.
Mortgage Lending Value. The value of the property as determined by the
Valuer making a prudent assessment of the future marketability of the property
by taking into account long-term sustainable aspects of the property, the
normal and local market conditions, and the current use and alternative
appropriate uses of the property. Speculative elements may not be taken into
account in the assessment of mortgage lending value. The mortgage lending value
shall be documented in a transparent and clear manner.
THE
PURPOSE OF VALUATIONS
Valuation matters.
It underpins a major proportion of financial decisions in mature economies,
especially where it serves as collateral for loans or as an important element
in the published company accounts. Failure to ensure assets are properly valued
risks financial exposure for wide range of stakeholders:
·
Banks that use property as collateral for loans;
·
Shareholders that have invested in quoted companies
and the companies themselves that become vulnerable to take-overs and asset
stripping if the properties they own are not regularly and correctly valued in
the balance sheet;
·
House-buyers;
·
Future pensioners whose savings are invested by funds;
·
Whole economies that depend on stable banking systems.
An estimate of
value may be required for a number of purposes. Several are common and provide
what is often considered the ‘bread and butter’ of valuation firms. Others are
specialist in nature and require the skill and training of the valuer to be
directed towards the specific nature of the valuation process and interest
being considered.
Requests for
valuation will include the following:
1.
Sale
2.
Purchase
3.
Mortgage
4.
Insurance
5.
Lease/Rental
6.
Financial Reporting
7.
Statutory Purposes
a.
Probate
b.
Property Tax
c.
Land Acquisition
d.
Rent Restriction
e.
Transfer Tax
f.
Hotel Incentives
The Valuation Report
The term valuation
suggests that it is a mathematical process, however; a large part of the
valuation process depends on the valuer forming his own opinion. Notwithstanding,
much of this ‘intuitive’ process is based on professional training and
experience gathered over the course of his/her career. Having said this, a
valuation for the determination of market value cannot be devoid of
transactional or other derived market data.
The
Valuation/Appraisal Report is the formal presentation of the valuer’s opinion
in written form. At minimum it must contain:
1.
A sufficient description to identify the property
without doubt;
2.
A definition of value;
3.
A statement as to the interest being valued and any
legal encumbrances present;
4.
The effective date of the valuation;
5.
Any special features of the property;
6.
The name of the Valuer.
Valuation Accuracy and Standardisation
The difference of
opinion, which can occur between competent valuers, should not vary much in
times of stable market conditions, provided market information is available to
all and is not under-reported. There should be little difference too between
the valuation and subsequent sale price of properties – provided the sale took
place within a short period of time after the valuation was undertaken.
A few celebrated
cases have noted wide variations (in excess of 10%) between valuations
commissioned for the same property, but undertaken by different valuation firms.
The ‘Queens Moat Case’ in the UK being a notable example.
In that country the
financial and property crash of the 1970s was largely blamed on a wide
variation in the approach to valuations ‘…which [threw] up vastly different –
and often completely unrealistic – figures for similar assets.
As is often the
case, it took a market bust to reveal some inconsistencies and abuses that had
been going on during the boom. The Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors
(RICS) responded by developing and publishing its Red Book, which sought to set
standards for the valuation process in the UK and to codify the basis on which
valuations could be produced.
Here in Jamaica,
the Real Estate Dealers and Developers Act was passed in 1989 and sought to
address some of the failings of the local market as identified by the Duffus
report of the 1970s. While the Act introduces a minimum qualification for
Valuers to practice, there is no regulation of the profession, although there
is a local professional body, The Association of Land Economy and Valuation
Surveying (ALEVS). See also‘White Paper:
Valuation in Emerging Markets’, ISVC.
Increased
cross-border trading resulting from the impact of globalisation has spurred the
need for an international way of communicating – an international set of
standards. The International Valuation Standards Committee (ISVC) has
recommended the formation of National Standards bodies and has revised practice
statements in accordance with national bodies such as the RICS. These standards
are aimed at meeting various international accounting and capital adequacy
regulations.
The Role of the Valuer
The service of a
valuer may be sought by anyone with an interest in, or contemplating a
transaction involving land and buildings. For example, a valuer may be required
to advise a vendor on the price he should pay, a mortgagee (lending
institution) on the value of the security and a person dispossessed under
compulsory powers, on the compensation he can claim.
It might be
reasonable to ask next what are the special characteristics of landed property
which make the services of a person with special knowledge desirable, or in
many cases essential, in dealing with it? There are several reasons.
Some
features of the property market
Imperfections in the property market: The nature of
landed property, the method of conducting transactions, the lack of information
generally available on the transactions, all contribute to the imperfections of
competition in the property market.
The heterogeneity of landed property and the interests
which can exist therein:
Apart from
structural differences in any building, each piece of landed property is unique
by reason of location. The majority of transactions in the property market are
conducted privately and even if the results of the transactions were available
they would not be particularly helpful in the absence of detailed information
on such matters as the extent and state of the buildings and the tenure.
The degree of
imperfection does, however, differ in different parts of the market. Retail
units in shopping centres and offices in purposes built business parks as well
as town houses and apartments, for example, are fairly homogenous, and this
will increase the comparability of these units with each other.
It is important to
note that the property market is not a single entity, and could be described as
being composed of a number of sub-sectors; local, national and international;
residential, commercial, agricultural etc. For example, residential properties
required for occupation would normally form part of the local market. A person
looking for a house to live in is rarely indifferent to its location because it
must be conveniently situated usually in relation to his/her place of work and
perhaps that of his/her spouse, and to educational facilities for his/her
children.
The property market
will also categorise property transactions by various property types, for
example, residential market with its sub-market of townhouses, detached units
and low-rise terraces.
Government
Intervention: Various pieces of legislation will have impact on the ownership of
land/property as an investment and could erode property values after purchase.
For example, Rent Restriction legislation or the Land Acquisition Act when
enacted would have significant impact on the value of the property investment.
The professional
valuer addresses the problem posed by a client who requires knowing the value
of a particular interest in land. To do this the valuer has to follow a
process. The process will consist of:
·
Defining the property and interest to be valued;
·
Determining the purpose for which the valuation is
required;
·
Inspection of the property;
·
Investigating the legal rights and restrictions,
easements, tenancies, etc.;
·
Determining planning requirements and considerations
·
Classification of comparable transactions;
·
Adjusting of price established from comparable
evidence to reflect any locational or physical differences in the property, as
well as any pertinent trends in the economy.
METHODS OF
VALUATION
There are three
main methods of valuation; namely
1.
The Comparable or Sales Comparison Method: Used for most
types of property where there is good evidence of previous sales.
Non-specialised property.
2.
The Investment Method: Used for most commercial
(and residential) property that is producing, or has the potential to produce,
future cash flows through the letting (renting) of the property or through the
operation of a business. Non-specialised property.
3.
The Cost Approach also called the Contractor’s Method: Used for only
those properties not bought and sold on the market and for technical (accounts
and statutory) purposes only. Specialised property.
Two other methods
of valuations are recognised in UK practice, though the residual method is
general considered to be a combination of the other methods, and the profits
(accounts) method to be an investment method.
4.
The Residual (Development) Method: Used for
properties ripe for redevelopment of for bare land only. Determines the value
of the asset undeveloped relative to the potential sale price of the completed
development. Non-specialised and specialised property.
5.
The Profits Method also called the Accounts Method: Used for trading
properties (other than normal shops) where evidence of rents is slight as they
tend not to be held as investments. The accounts method determines an
appropriate rent, which is then used in the investment method.
The manner in which
property would ordinarily trade in the market distinguishes the applicability
of the various methods or procedures of estimating Market Value. When based on market information, each method is a
comparative method. In each valuation situation one or more methods are
generally representative of (open) market activities. The valuer will consider
each method in every Market Value
engagement and will determine which methods are most appropriate.
The adoption and
application of the respective method of valuation by the valuer often depends
on the following:
a)
The purpose of the valuation
b)
The property and type of interest
c)
Physical and other features of the property
d)
The availability of relevant data, and
e)
Government regulations
Generally however
valuations can be grouped into two main sub-classes hinged essentially on the
relative complexity of the property type to be valued. Thus, we have specialised
and non-specialised
valuations. With non-specialised property there is sufficient trading
activity to observe the level of prices without the need to interpret the
underlying fundamentals. Price is determined by comparison.
However, given that price should reflect the thought process of a potential
purchaser, it is not unreasonable that where there is no established trading
market, then cost of replacement or an analysis of the property as an asset to
the business will become the principal forms of pricing. This, then, is the
basis of the valuation models used for the valuation of specialised property.
The Sales Comparison Method
The method entails
making a valuation by directly comparing the property under consideration with
similar properties, which have been sold, finding its value from these
transactions.
Although this
sounds simple and straightforward, there may be many pitfalls to trap the
unwary. In using this method, it is desirable that the comparison should be
made with similar properties situated in the same area, and with transactions,
which have taken place in the recent past.
The less the
comparative property complies with these requirements, the less valid will be
the comparison, or, put another way, the greater the number of subjective
adjustments that need to be made, the less defensible the valuation will become.
Often a valuer is able to get evidence of sales that do accord with the
requirements, e.g. an apartment or townhouse complex will have properties that
are similar.
However, the more
uncommon the property is, and the more specialised the type of property, the
less likely it is that the valuer will be able to find a good comparable, and
it is not unusual for there to be a complete lack of evidence of sales of
comparable properties.
Even when
properties appear to be similar, close inspection often reveals that they are
in fact different. A row of physically identical houses may on internal
inspection prove to have differences, and the skill and experience of the
valuer will be required to make allowances in monetary terms for such
differences. Similarly, a skilled valuer will be able to quantify the
difference in value based on the valuer’s assessment of empirical data. The procurement
of data is therefore of utmost importance:
·
Source of Data – Office of Titles, Stamp Office, etc.
However, information is difficult and costly to obtain and only regular
experience in the type of property and the market concerned will really satisfy
the need for detailed knowledge of the market;
·
Details of transactions – Full details of sales will
not always be known. Caution must therefore be exercised when such transactions
are being relied upon. The use of a range of comparables should provide a
reasonable base;
·
There may be time lags between agreement and final
conveyance, during which the market can change. The date of the agreement is important
in a fluctuating market;
·
Where rental values are known, capital values can
usually be derived by the use of the investment method of valuation;
The Income Capitalisation (Investment) Method
This is based on
the principle that annual values and capital values are related to each other
and that, given the income a property produces or its annual value, the capital
value can be found. The method is widely used by valuers when properties which
produce an income flow are sold to purchasers who are buying them for
investment. That is, the property is purchased primarily for its income bearing
capacity. The method involves the determination of net rental income multiplied
by a years purchase factor at the appropriate rate of interest over the time
period concerned. This time period should normally be equal to the life of the
investment and the method is similar to that employed by the equities market
where valuations of stocks are undertaken with reference to their price
earnings ratio p/e.
Rental income can
be actual or notional. Actual rental income exists when the property is let on
lease and the tenant pays a rent for use and occupation. Notional rental income
occurs when the property is owner-occupied – the notional rent being the rental
that would otherwise be paid for the use and occupation of a similar property.
Many types of
property are let (rented) on terms, which require the landlord to bear the cost
of certain outgoings, that is expenses related to the property, that are
essential to the property maintaining its full value. To arrive at the net
income in such cases, outgoings must be deducted from the rent paid. Landlord’s
outgoings are usually classified as:
a)
Repairs
b)
Insurance
c)
Management
d)
Rates and Taxes
Note that service
charges are not part of landlord’s outgoings.
The Years Purchase (Capitalisation
Rate) or multiplier is derived from the rate of yield (rate of return) that an
investor decides he will require from a property. This yield reflects the
quality of the investment in comparison with other property investments and
other investments generally. Consideration has been given to factors, which
influence the investor in his choice of yield and the valuer will obviously need
to be conversant with these when using the investment method. It should be
noted that as with most investments the yield reflects the attendant risk
attached to the investment and in the case of property would be representative
of the attractiveness of the investment to the purchaser in the market in
general, with specific regard to:
a)
Capital security (in real terms);
b)
Income security;
c)
Income growth;
d)
Ease of sale and management;
e)
Return on other investments.
It will be noticed
that an analysis of previous transactions is a pre-requisite of the investment
method and the comparative principles are at the heart of this process. Hence,
this method involves estimating future income flows and converting this income
flow to capital values.
The Profits (Accounts) Method
This is sometimes
referred to as the accounts method and it is based on the assumption that the
values of some properties will be related to the profits or annual returns
which can be made from their use. The method is not used where it is possible to
value by means of comparison and is generally only used where there is some
degree of monopoly attached to the property. This monopoly may be either legal
or factual. A legal monopoly exists where some legal restraint exists to
prevent competition to the property user from the user of other property.
Such a situation
may occur when a licence is required for the pursuit of a particular trade,
such as a licence to sell alcoholic liquor or to run a betting shop or a gas
station or casino. A factual monopoly may arise when there is some other
factor, other than a legal restraint, which restricts competition. An instance of factual or natural monopoly is
Dunn’s River Falls or marina facilities at Port Royal, where there is no other
property to offer competition and where none is likely to be built.
Whenever there is
an element of monopoly, it is obviously not possible to use the comparative
method of valuation, as there could be no true comparison to a property, which
enjoys a monopoly. It is also a reasonable assumption that only rent, which
would be paid for the use of such property, would relate to the earning power
in that use. It should be noted that with this method the valuer attempts to
estimate the rental value of a property in order to derive a capital value.
Profits are made on an annual basis, and any figure obtained from them will be
on an annual basis. The basic equation on which the profits method is based is
as follows:
|
Gross
Earnings
|
less
|
Working
Expenses
|
is equal to
|
Gross
Profit
|
|
|
less
|
Tax
|
|
|
is equal to
|
Net
Profit Per Annum
|
Allowances must be
made out of net profit to account for tenant salary, risk taking and enterprise
and interest on capital expended. The figure derived can be related to annual
rating or converted to a capital sum. The annual sum is converted to a capital
sum using a multiplier, which should be market derived.
The Contractor’s Or Cost Method
This method is used
to value properties for which there is little or no sales evidence, and where
property cannot be valued by reference to its trading potential. It is applied
to the valuation of the types of properties, which seldom change hands and for
which there are few comparables. It must, at this point, be reiterated that
cost and value are rarely the same, but this method of valuation is based
loosely on the assumption that they are related. It should therefore be
appreciated that this is a method used only infrequently, and is something of a
method of last resort.
The basic theory of
the contractor’s method is that the cost of the site plus the cost of the
building will give the value of the land and building as one unit. The types of
properties for which the method could be appropriate are:
(a)
Hospitals;
(b)
Town halls;
(c)
Schools and churches;
(d)
Libraries, and;
(e)
Police stations and other such buildings.
It will be noted
that the list comprises principally public buildings, although the use of the
method is not necessarily restricted to public buildings alone. Cost is
normally only one factor of many which may affect supply and demand and which
therefore affects value, but it is probably true that with these types of
building, it is a predominant factor. It would always be possible for the
would-be users of such buildings to acquire alternative sites and to construct
new buildings, rather than purchase an existing property at a greater overall
cost. Competition between rival potential users would be unlikely and it is
therefore reasonable to assume that cost and value are not unrelated with such
specialist buildings.
However, consideration must be taken of the fact that
the structure being valued is not a new building, and therefore, adjustments
must be made for wear and tear resulting from its previous use and there might
also be a degree of obsolescence, which has arisen since original construction.
In using the contractor’s method, the valuer must therefore make a deduction to
allow for both depreciation of the buildings and obsolescence of design. The
basic valuation approach then becomes as below:
|
Basic
Cost of Building
|
Plus
|
Professional
Fees, inclusive of GCT
|
Plus
|
Finance
Charges
|
Plus
|
Allowance
for Profit and Contingencies
|
is equal to
|
Cost of
Building New
|
|
|
Less
|
Allowance
for Depreciation and Obsolescence
|
|
|
is equal to
|
Value of
Existing Property
|
|
|
Plus
|
Site
(land) value of existing property using sales comparison approach.
|
|
|
is equal to
|
Market (Capital) Value
|
An adapted version
of this method is used for the valuation of properties for insurance purposes.
The method is used to determine the cost of replacing the perishable good (the
buildings/structure) as new.
|
Basic
Cost of Building
|
plus
|
Professional
Fees, inclusive of GCT
|
plus
|
Contingences
|
|
|
is equal to
|
Cost of
Building New
|
Note that there are
no finance charges as it is assumed that the insurance funds will be paid up in
total up front. The structure will be valued having consideration for the
construction technology to be employed in its replacement except in the case of
heritage buildings where the structure will be replaced using elements similar
to those originally used in the development of the structure of alternate
elements approved by the relevant authority.
The Residual (Development) Method
This method is most
commonly used to determine the value of properties with development potential.
Alternatively, it is used to determine the viability of development schemes.
Although all valuers will have their own way of setting out a residual
valuation, the basic approach is straightforward and the method is simple to
use. Difficulties arise not in the method itself, but in estimating the values
of the many variables that go into the valuation. Development schemes may
comprise the development of new buildings on Greenfield or cleared sites,
redevelopment of built sites involving the demolition of existing buildings.
There are
essentially three main purposes for which a residual valuation may be
undertaken:
a)
To calculate the maximum a developer can afford to pay
for a development site, this is for sale in the open market; This amount would
then be compared with asking price to see whether it’s worthwhile for the
developer to acquire the site and
proceed with the development; a sort of first phase feasibility study if you
like.
b)
To calculate the expected profit from undertaking
development where the developer owns the site.
c)
To calculate a cost ceiling for construction, where
land has been acquired and is therefore a known cost and a minimum acceptable
profit margin can be decided on.
In its simplest
form, when used to assess the development value of land, the residual valuation
will estimate the maximum purchase price of a site, by deducting the expected
totals costs of development, including an allowance to cover risk and profit,
from the expected price that the completed development could be sold for in the
market. The residual valuation could therefore be expressed thus:
Sale price of completed development
(Gross Development Value) A
Less Total cost of development
(incl. Profit allowance) B
Equals residue for site purchase C
Residual site value
= Gross development value (GDV) – total development costs (including
profits)
This produces the
value of the site after the development has been completed. In order to
determine the value of the site at today’s date, the residual value has to be
discounted for the time value of money.
For teaching
purposes only: Not to be quoted.
Recommended websites: Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors: http://rics.org
The International Valuation
Standards Committee:
eLandjamaica: http://www.nla.gov.jm/eland01.html
References
Lyon, Susanne (2005) An Introduction to Valuations; Real
Estate Saleman Notes
Pagourtzi, E, Assimakopoulos, V,
Hatzzichristos, T, French, N (2003), Real Estate Appraisal: A Review of Valuation
Methods, Journal of Proeprty Investment & Finance, 21:4, 383-401
ISVC (2005) International Valuation
Standards,
International Valuation Standards Committee
RICS (1997) Calculation of Worth, Royal
Institution of Chartered Surveyors, London
Gilbertson, Barry, Preston, Duncan (2005) A Vision for Valuation,
Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors, London
Brett, Michael (2002) Valuation Standards for the
Global Market
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