VALUATION

Valuation

by Anders Müller

_________________________________________________________

This article is on the World Bank web site about Tax Policy & Administration. The URL is:

http://www1.worldbank.org/publicsector/tax/valuation.html#valuation

The article was completed in January 2001. A few references have been added in February 2002.

Valuation of Land and Buildings for the Recurrent Property Tax and for other Taxes

Most countries have an annual property tax and in most cases the tax base is the market value of land and buildings. This means that the government has to estimate the market value of all taxable properties and, for the tax to be fair, it is important that a revaluation take place at regular intervals – for example every four or five year. This valuation function for the recurrent property tax is the main topic of this section.

Table 1. Taxes Related to Immovable Property.

Base of tax	Recurrent (annual)	Non-recurrent (at transfer)
Land and buildings	Property tax, land tax, rates	Transfer tax or stamp duty
All assets	Net wealth tax	Inheritance and gift tax

A few countries have a net wealth tax based on the value of all assets. For immovable property it is common practice to use the same values for the net wealth tax as are used for the recurrent property tax.

Some taxes related to immovable property are only paid when the property is transferred and this is the case for transfer tax or stamp duty and for inheritance and gift tax. The base for these taxes is the actual selling price for transfer tax and usually the taxpayer’s estimate of the market value for inheritance and gift tax. There needs to be provision in the law for the tax administration to be able to examine these values and possibly overrule them if they are not a true estimate of market value.

If the estimated market values for the recurrent property tax are accepted as being reasonably accurate, then these values can also be used for the purposes of transfer tax and inheritance and gift tax. This is, for example, the case in Denmark where the assessed value for the property tax is the minimum base for the transfer tax. For inheritance and gift tax in Denmark the tax administration will usually accept estimates of the value made by the taxpayer if that estimate is within plus or minus 15 percent of the assessed property tax value.

If market values of properties are not assessed for recurrent property tax, or if those values differ greatly from the true market values, then the tax administration will need to use other methods for examining and, if necessary, overruling recorded sales prices and value estimates made by the taxpayer. The methods that have to be used will be the same as those for the valuation for recurrent property tax (see the rest of this section), but the volume of properties which will need examination and valuation is much smaller than for the property tax. Use of independent private experts to produce unbiased value estimates for inheritance and gift tax is also a possible course of action.

1. Different Types of Recurrent Property Taxes

There are many different types of property taxes. Some of them require that the properties are valued and other types do not require this. Table 2 gives an overview of some different types of basis and coverage.

In the industrialised countries and in the developing countries property taxes are usually based on the market value of the property. In the transition countries property taxes are often area based. For an area-based property tax, no value estimate is made of the property, but the tax is based on a certain sum of money per square meter the amount varying for different types and sizes of land and buildings. An area-based property tax also exists in Israel and the traditional land revenue on the Indian Subcontinent, which still exist in Nepal, is another example of an area based property tax.

Table 2. Basis and Coverage of Recurrent property Taxes. Examples of different Types.

Basis of the tax			Coverage
			Property		Land
Market value		Capital value	USA UK (domestic) Netherlands Denmark Indonesia Chile		Denmark Australia Estonia Belize
		Annual value	UK (commercial) India
Other value concept		Book value	Russia
		Acquisition value	California
Area based			Israel Poland Czech Republic		Nepal

In some countries the property tax is value based, but not based on current market values. In Russia and several other CIS countries there is a property tax on business enterprises based on the book value of the buildings, machinery and inventory of the businesses. In California the property tax is based on the purchase price of the property and no assessment function is carried out.

There are also differences between the various property taxes which are based on market values. The most common situation is that the property tax is based on the capital value of the land and the buildings – which is what the property could be sold for on the open market. But in the traditional British system, still in use in many former British colonies, the tax base is the rental value or the annual value of the property – which is what the annual rent for the property would be on the open market. In addition there are some countries that operate land taxes based on the market value of the land alone.

2. Valuation Issues in Different Types of Countries

As shown in table 3 there are big differences between different types of countries concerning what the problems and issues are in relation to valuation.

In many developing countries there are considerable problems in relation to the valuations for property tax. There are many different types of problems which result in reduced revenue and in an unfair distribution of the tax burden. Taxpayers are sometimes able to influence the assessment process, false rent receipts are presented, the valuation procedures lack transparency, the basic data are insufficient, and the administrative capacity and staff qualifications are insufficient.

Table 3. Issues Regarding Collection and Valuation.

	Collection	Valuation
Industrialised countries	No problems.	Only small problems: Well functioning computerised systems in many countries. Some countries have not had a revaluation for many years. Some countries need to computerise their valuation systems.
Transition countries	Relatively small problems.	Major challenges in the coming years: To establish valuation systems to replace area based property taxes and taxes based on book value. Simplified systems are probably needed.
Developing countries	Often big problems.	Often big problems: Subjective methods used where the taxpayer can influence the assessment. More objective mass valuation systems are needed. Missing or misleading information about sales prices and rents. Weak administrative units responsible for valuation and lack of qualified staff.

However, it is important to bear in mind that in many developing countries the problems with the collection of property tax are more serious than the problems with valuation. Enforcement steps are not taken and as a consequence many taxpayers choose not to pay. Because of this the revenue is reduced and the tax is perceived as unfair. It is, therefore, imperative that collection is improved before, or at the same time, as valuation is improved. (See Müller, 2000)

In transition countries the main challenge is to replace both the area based property taxes, and any property taxes based on the book value, with new property taxes which are based on the market values of the properties. In 1993 Estonia introduced a land tax based on the market value of land is using a simplified valuation system. Latvia is in the process of introducing a new property tax based on the market value of land and buildings and also using a simplified valuation system. Slovenia is introducing a market value based property tax supported by the World Bank. Poland and the Czech Republic are preparing to introduce market value based property taxes, but no political decisions have been taken yet. In Russia a US-supported project has carried out pilot projects in two cities where market values have been estimated for the properties to be used as a basis for a new uniform property tax.

3. Basic Approaches to Valuation

The process of producing market values of properties to be used for a property tax is basically the same process as that which is used for the appraisal of individual properties for many purposes including investment and mortgage purposes. In the case of valuations for property tax, because a very large number of properties need to be valued at the same time, mass appraisal methods have to be used. This has to be done because the costs of valuation per property need to be much smaller than what is acceptable for the individual valuations in the private sector.

In both individual valuation and in mass valuation there are three accepted approaches to valuation. The preferred approach is the comparable sales approach since the only direct evidence of the market value is the sales prices. If the sales approach cannot be used because of a lack of information about sales prices, then what is known as the income approach is used. This method comprises taking either the actual, or the estimated, income derived from the property, usually in the form of rent and applying a capitalisation factor to this income to arrive at a capital value The capitalisation factor is derived from examining rented properties which have been sold and making an analysis of the sales prices realised compared with the rents received. As a last resort where neither of the above two methods are suitable, the cost approach can be used whereby the value of the property is derived from the estimated cost of building the property or a modern equivalent. For the cost approach the construction costs are obtained from other known building costs, from cost statistics or from experts in the estimation of building costs.

Table 4. The Three Approaches to Valuation.

Comparable sales approach	Sales prices for properties of comparable location and description are used. A model for the calculation of the value is estimated using statistical analysis of sales prices.
Income approach	The rent income and an estimated capitalisation factor are used.
Cost approach	Cost of construction minus depreciation plus the value of land is used.

4. The Mass Valuation Process

In order to value and tax properties it is necessary to compile a description of all the properties that are the subject of the tax. This data base is often called the fiscal cadastre or the tax list and large scale maps can be helpful in ensuring that all properties are included in the data base, but even without maps it is possible to compile a complete tax list; this is easier to achieve in urban areas than in rural ones. The identification of the taxpayers is not needed for the valuation process, but is crucial for the collection of the property tax.

The gathering of market information on sales and lettings is a very important part of the valuation process. This should take place on a regular basis and it necessary for the process to start many years before any system for estimating market values is introduced. It is common practice to obtain the registered sales prices from the Land Registry or other similar body but in many countries, the registered sales prices are not the correct ones because the sales prices are underreported by the taxpayers in order to reduce the stamp duty paid, or for other reasons. In such cases consideration should be given to supplementing this market information with information from valuation experts, real estate agents etc.

Table 5. The Valuation Process.

Basic description of properties (fiscal cadastre)	Identification (plot number)
	Location
	Land description (area, permitted use)
	Building description (area, age, materials, quality)
	Taxpayer (not essential)
Gather market information	Sales prices
	Rent information
	(Construction costs)
Valuation	Market analysis
	Valuation modelling
	Calculation of property values
	Valuation review
Taxpayer relations	Valuation notice sent to taxpayer
	Appeals

Rents are another important indication about the market values and information about rents are usually also gathered as part of the valuation process. The rental information is normally gathered by sending a return form to owners and tenants, asking them to submit the specified information to the valuation authority. Rental information is especially important if the property tax is based on rental values, but the analysis of rental information is also an important part of estimating the capital values for properties, particularly in the case of commercial and industrial properties where there is usually far more rental evidence than sales evidence.

The market analysis attempts to determine how location, land area, size and quality of the building, and other factors influence the sales prices. Different prices per square meter of land and buildings are used, depending on the quality and location of the property to be valued. Plotting sales prices per square meter on maps can be very useful in determining the influence of location on value.

The valuation models are the result of the market analysis. They can be mathematical models or they can be tables of values per square meter for different types of land and buildings.

When the valuation models have been established the taxable value of each property can be calculated. The valuer then needs to review the calculated taxable values to assess whether or not they represent reasonable estimates of the market values. This process is especially important for unusual properties, such as very large properties or properties with an unusual location or use.

5. Computerisation of the Valuation Process

The first phase of a computerisation project will usually include the computerisation of the basic description of properties, the calculation of property values, and the printing of the valuation notices and the tax bills. The next phase could be to enter the sales prices in a computerised database. When these phases have been completed it will be possible to combine the two processes and computerise the market analysis and valuation modelling. It is common practice to use multiple regression analysis in order to produce valuation models, but other methods (such as "feed back") can also be used.

Computerisation of valuation can, and usually does, reduce the costs of valuation to a considerable degree. Computerisation can also be used to make the valuation process more transparent and less subject to undue influence from the taxpayers.

6. Valuation Frequency

When the property tax is based on the market value of the properties it is important that revaluations of all properties are carried out at regular intervals. There are two kinds of problems that can arise if the interval between revaluations is too great. One problem is that property tax revenue is eroded because the taxable property values do not increase with inflation, other property market changes and the resultant increases in property values. This can be partly solved by increasing the tax rates or by indexing the taxable property values according to inflation or according to estimates of increases in property values. The other problem is that the tax becomes unfair because the market value of some properties has increased much more than the value of other properties and the relativities have therefore changed, but the owners are still paying taxes based on the old values.

It is usual for the valuation frequency to be specified in the laws that govern property tax or valuation. It is common to have four or five years between revaluations, but in countries where the valuation process has been computerised, it has been possible to have more frequent revaluations. Some parts of the US now have revaluation every year or every second year and in Denmark there has been, since 1982, indexation of the values in years between revaluations and, from 1998, a full revaluation every year.

Some European countries have not had frequent revaluations. In Germany, the last revaluation took place in 1964 and recently the federal court has ruled that these values cannot any longer be used for the net wealth tax. In 1990 the United Kingdom replaced the domestic property tax with the infamous poll tax, and one of the main reasons was that the last revaluation prior to this had taken place in 1973. The government was not prepared to face the electoral unpopularity that would have resulted from a revaluation that reflected the enormous changes in the relativities of values that had occurred over the previous seventeen years, and the resultant changes in the relative tax burdens. The subsequent unpopularity of the poll tax forced the government to replace it with a new domestic property tax based on a simplified valuation system using value bands and with no provision for future revaluations. In France the last revaluation was in 1970, but annual indexation has been introduced in the eighties.

7. Valuation Principles

When the tax base is the market value of the property it is essential to define very carefully how that value should be estimated. It is common practice that the value is the price that would be agreed between a willing and well-informed buyer and seller for the property at the time of valuation. A specified valuation date (for example January 1 of the year of revaluation) is essential so that market evidence from around that time can be used for the valuation, and so that the condition of the property at that time is reflected in the value which is produced for the property.

In some countries the value, assuming the highest and best use to which the property could be put is adopted for property tax valuations. In other countries, the value is restricted to that for the existing use to which the property is put. Public regulations are usually taken into consideration while private regulations (such as special covenants, actual rental contracts or mortgages) are disregarded. The valuation should include the land and the buildings, but usually machinery, loose equipment etc are excluded. There are often special laws and regulations regarding the treatment of plant and machinery in industrial properties

8. Appeals

It is normal practice for the taxpayer to be able to appeal against the result of the valuation if he thinks that the result does not correspond with the true market value of the property. There should be a deadline for the filing of the appeal, and it is usual to have a rule that the taxpayer must give the reasons why he disagrees. In some countries a small fee has to be paid to make an appeal – the fee plus interest being returned if the taxpayer wins the appeal. It is important that the taxes due have to be paid even if the value is appealed, because if not many taxpayers may appeal simply to postpone the payment of the tax.

9. Responsibility for Valuation

In the US the local government or the county is responsible for valuation. In Europe it is usually the central government that carries out the valuation even though the property tax is a local tax collected by the local government. This is the case in the UK, Germany, France and Denmark. In the Netherlands the municipality does the valuation. See a description of the situation in Denmark in "Administration of local taxes" under "Tax Structure and Administration". (links are on the web site)

In some countries, valuers dealing with property tax are fully qualified valuers where property valuation has been the main component of their further education and many valuers are employed for the valuation functions. In other countries the staff working with valuation have no special training or they have gone through short courses etc. Where the local government is responsible for valuation, specialist private companies are often hired to carry out the revaluation for the smaller municipalities or counties.

Key Readings:

• Inventory Valuation
• Taxation of Land and Property
• Property Tax in Anglophone Africa. A practical Manual

Links are on the web site.

"Taxation of Land and Property" is a chapter written by Zuhtu Yucelik and Janet Stotsky in Tax Policy Handbook, edited by Parthasarathi Shome, pg. 185-188, International Monetary Fund, Washington DC, 1995

"Property Tax in Anglophone Africa" by Simon H. Keith is in Washington DC, The World Bank Technical paper No. 209, pages 1-16, 1997.
 

Further References:

• Bahl, Roy W, and Linn, Johannes F (1992). Urban Public Finance in Developing Countries. A World Bank Book. Oxford University Press. Oxford, UK.
• Bahl, Roy W (1998). Land Taxes versus Property Taxes in Developing and Transition Countries. In Netzer, Dick (ed.) (1998). Land Value Taxation. Can It and Will It Work Today? Lincoln Institute of Land Policy. Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA.
• Dillinger, William (1991). Urban Property Tax Reform. Guidelines and Recommendations. World Bank - Urban Management and Municipal Finance. Washington D.C., USA.
• Eckert, J.K.(ed.) (1990). Property Appraisal and Assessment Administration. The International Association of Assessing Officers, Chicago. USA.

(Very comprehensive textbook written for valuation staff in USA

and Canada. Includes computer assisted valuation.)

• Gloudemans (1999). Mass Appraisal of Real Property. The International Association of Assessing Officers. Chicago, USA.

(The newest textbook about mass valuation and computer

assisted valuation. Written for valuation staff in USA and

Canada)

• McCluskey, William (ed.) (1991). Comparative Property Tax Systems. Avebury. Aldershot, UK.

(Country chapters about Australia, Zimbabwe, Malaysia, New

Zealand, Nigeria, Ireland, Philippines, Netherlands, England,

Portugal, Singapore, Northern Ireland, Jersey and the Isle of

Man)

• McCluskey, William (ed.) (1999). Property Tax: An International Comparative Review. Ashgate. Aldershot, UK.

(Country chapters about Singapore, Hong Kong, Malaysia,

Ireland, Pakistan, Thailand, Cyprus, Botswana, Zimbabwe,

Netherlands, Philippines, Brazil, New Zealand, Australia, South

Africa, Kenya, Estonia, Jamaica, Poland, Hungary and Czech

Republic)

• Müller, Anders (1995). Agricultural Land Tax and the Transition to a Market Economy.

In Wunderlich, Gene (ed.). Agricultural Landownership in

Transitional Economies. University Press of America, Lanham,

Maryland, USA.

• Müller, Anders (1998). An International Perspective on Land Taxation. In Journal of Property Tax Assessment & Administration, Vol 3 1997/98. Ulster, UK.
• Müller, Anders (2000). Adressing Non-payment: Enforcement Issues in Tax Administration in Developing Countries. Paper for the conference "Africa Property Tax Renaissance" in Cape Town, South Africa in June 2000. Conference organised by IPTI (proceedings available at www.ipti.org).
• OECD (1983). Taxes on Immovable Property. Paris, France.

(Country chapters on Australia, Denmark, France, Germany,

Ireland, Japan, Netherlands, New Zealand, Portugal, Spain,

Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, UK and USA)

• Paugam, A. (1999). Reform Toward an Ad Valorem Property Tax: Fiscal and Non-Fiscal Benefits in Transition Economies. World Bank Report, Washington D.C., USA.
• World Bank (1996?). Property Tax in Eastern and Southern Africa: Challenges and Lessons Learned. Working Paper 2. Municipal Development Programme. World Bank. Washington D.C., USA.

(Conference papers about Ghana, Kenya, Malawi, Namibia,

Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe)

• Youngman, Joan M, and Malme, Jane H (1994). An International Survey of Taxes on Land and Buildings. Lincoln Institute of Land Policy and OECD. Kluwer. Deventer, The Netherlands.

(Country chapters about Australia, Canada, Chile, Denmark,

France, Indonesia, Israel, Japan, Netherlands, South Korea,

Sweden, Switzerland, UK and USA)

New references:

·         Malme, Jane and Youngman, Joan (ed.). The Development of Property Taxation on Economics in Transition – Case Studies from Central and Eastern Europe. World Bank. October 2001.

                (Country chapters about Poland, Estonia, Czech Republic,

                Slovakia, Russia and Armenia)

·         Brown, Peter and Hepworth, Moria (2001). A Study of European Land Tax Systems. Institute of Revenues, Rating and Valuation. London, UK.

Contact information:

Office: Anders Müller, Central Customs and Tax Administration, Ostbanegade 123, 2100 Copenhagen O, Denmark. (45) 35 29 27 06

Acm@tu22.ccta.dk

Home: Anders Müller, Vodroffs Tvaergade 5A, 1909 Frederiksberg C, Denmark. (45) 33 31 45 57, taxinn@wanadoo.dk